- 行业: Economy; Printing & publishing
- Number of terms: 15233
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Мера стоимости денег, который устраняет эффект инфляции. Контраст с номинальной стоимостью.
Industry:Economy
Степень, в которой значение и влияние налога, налоговые помощи или субсидий уменьшается из-за его побочных эффектов. Например увеличивая количество налогов, взимаемых с вознаграждения трудящихся приведет некоторые работники перестают работать или работать меньше, таким образом уменьшая количество дополнительных налогов должны быть собраны. Однако создание налоговых льгот или субсидий для поощрения людей к покупке страхования жизни будет иметь Тоннаж судна, стоить, потому что люди, которые купили бы страховая все равно выиграет.
Industry:Economy
A form of protectionism. A country imposes limits on the number of goods that can be imported from another country. For instance, France may limit the number of cars imported from Japan to, say, 20,000 a year. As a result of limiting supply, the price of the imported good is higher than it would be under free trade, thus making life easier for domestic producers.
Industry:Economy
An indicator of the reliability of a relationship identified by regression analysis. An R2 of 0. 8 indicates that 80% of the change in one variable is explained by a change in the related variable.
Industry:Economy
A guide to the riskiness of a financial instrument provided by a ratings agency, such as Moody’s, Standard and Poor’s and Fitch IBCA. These measures of credit quality are mostly offered on marketable government and corporate debt. A triple-A or A++ rating represents a low risk of default; a C or D rating an extreme risk of, or actual, default. Debt prices and yields often (but not always) reflect these ratings. A triple-A bond has a low yield. High-yielding bonds, also known as junk bonds, usually have a rating that suggests a high risk of default. A series of financial market crises from the mid-1990s onwards led to growing debate about the reliability of ratings, and whether they were slow to give warning of impending trouble. After the Enron debacle, which again the ratings agencies had failed to predict, some critics argued that the big three agencies had formed a cosy oligopoly and that encouraging more competition was the way to improve ratings.
Industry:Economy
An approach to regulation often used for a public utility to stop it exploiting monopoly power. A public utility is forbidden to earn above a certain rate of return decided by the regulator. In practice, this often encourages the utility to be inefficient, slow to innovate and quick to spend money on such things as big offices and executive jets, to keep down its profit and thus the rate of return. Contrast with price regulation.
Industry:Economy
A way to measure economic success, albeit one that can be manipulated quite easily. It is calculated by expressing the economic gain (usually profit) as a percentage of the capital used to produce it. Deciding what number to use for profit is rarely simple. Likewise, totaling up how much capital was used can be tricky, especially if it is expanded to include intangible assets and human capital. When firms are evaluating a project to decide whether to go ahead with it, they estimate the project’s expected rate of return and compare it with their cost of capital. (See net present value and discount rate. )
Industry:Economy
Impossible to predict the next step. Efficient market theory says that the prices of many financial assets, such as shares, follow a random walk. In other words, there is no way of knowing whether the next change in the price will be up or down, or by how much it will rise or fall. The reason is that in an efficient market, all the information that would allow an investor to predict the next price move is already reflected in the current price. This belief has led some economists to argue that investors cannot consistently outperform the market. But some economists argue that asset prices are predictable (they follow a non-random walk) and that markets are not efficient.
Industry:Economy
How some economists believe that people think about the future. Nobody can predict the future perfectly; but rational expectations theory assumes that, over time, unexpected events (shocks) will cancel out each other and that on average people’s expectations about the future will be accurate. This is because they form their expectations on a rational basis, using all the information available to them optimally, and learn from their mistakes. This is in contrast to other theories of how people look ahead, such as adaptive expectations, in which people base their predictions on past trends and changes in trends, and behavioral economics, which assumes that expectations are somewhat irrational as a result of psychological biases. The theory of rational expectations, for which Robert Lucas won the Nobel prize for economics, initially became popular with monetarists because it seemed to prove that Keynesian policies of demand management would fail. With rational expectations, people learn to anticipate government policy changes and act accordingly; since macroeconomic fine tuning requires that governments be able to fool people, this implies that it is usually futile. Subsequently, this conclusion has been challenged. However, rational and near-rational expectations have become part of the mainstream of economic thought.
Industry:Economy
Although economists say that rationing is what the price mechanism does, what most people think of as rationing is an alternative to letting prices determine how scarce economic resources, goods and services are distributed (see also queuing). Non-price rationing is often used when the distribution decided by market forces is perceived to be unfair. Rationing may lead to the creation of a black market, as people sell their rations to those willing to pay a high price (see black economy).
Industry:Economy
